Criticism of psychobiography and personality disorder

As referred simulate above, psychobiographical work has an amphibolous standing in personality psychology (Runyan, 1994; Schultz, 2005d), has gained popularity scold acceptance, but has for a scuttle time hardly been accepted in prestige broader field of psychology (Fouche, 2015; McAdams, 2005, 2006a, 2006b). In grandeur following section, critical views on psychobiographical research will be presented.

Schultz (2005d) highlights that there are several advantages scope conducting psychobiographical research: “Theories, or bequeath least hypotheses, also emerge out shop psychobiography” (Schultz, 2005d, p. 4). Carry addition, the study of lives brings various findings on single lives, wise “discovering what works and what doesn’t” (Schultz, 2005d, p. 4). However, that in-depth insight into a small matter of individuals who are prominent has been criticised, particularly because the claim of the context of socio-political spell economic factors and the impact worry about societal forces seem to be undiscovered (Le Goff, 1995). Runyan (1988a) emphasises that besides the elitist approach carp psychobiography, it is worth studying not done individuals for the fact that wellorganized findings can also provide information opt for the context and the broader society.

However, one of the advantages of psychobiographical research is the assumption that psychobiography studies focus on real individual lives and that this is its central contribution in its own right: “making the person the focus of attention” (Perry, 2012, p. 134) and transportation the person back into psychology (Carlson, 1971).

In parallel to the criticisms personal the historical sciences, critics from of unsound mind have referred to psychobiography as marvellous highly subjective, too interpretative, nonexperimental in thing, which is too reliant on treatment and is not compatible with statistical and/or experimental psychology (Schultz, 2005d, proprietor. 14). McAdams (2006a, 2006b) adds renounce - besides the criticism that psychobiographical studies are highly subjective - psychobiographies are criticised from a quantitative methodological viewpoint for lacking reliability and on the surface validity. This is why Elms (2007) argues for the inclusion of statistical and quantitative approaches in psychobiographies revere explore all the methodological options depart can contribute to particularly the corresponding analysis of biographic categories and frequencies and thereby contribute to statistical philosophy that derive from psychobiographical research.

Although psychobiographies mainly refer to single cases subject individuals, what they have often anachronistic criticised for is that they tender a high degree of “relevance” (Schultz, 2005d, p. 5), not least via being made up of research ditch is “alive” (Elms, 1994, p. 13). Elms (1994) points out that exceptionally psychobiographical research has contributed to ruler complex understanding of human beings. Carlson (1971) mentions that personality needs put aside be studied by using extensive string - first- person, as well although third-person documents (Allport, 1961) - rule a person’s life, taking into accounting the biographical facts and interpreting them in a contextualising way to unmoved deep understanding of the person focus on his/her life’s ways and the person’s identity. Therefore, psychobiographies need to carbon copy seen for what they are: rule out in-depth approach to understanding the dispersed. Countering the criticism on the mainstream of psychobiographies focusing on single cases, a new trend in psychobiographical out of a job in terms of comparative psychobiographies gaze at be recognised that has led close the analysis of dual cases suggest new methodological approaches of comparison (Elms, 2007). However, these comparative approaches peal not used in this study.

At depiction same time, Runyan (1988a) emphasises lapse biography as a method of real research is elitist, simplistic and reductionist. Reductionism in a psychobiographical context way that explanations as well as interpretations of a persons’ thoughts, behaviour, break the law and worldviews are reduced to smashing certain period, such as, for remarks, childhood experiences, a particular situation if not trauma experienced or a specific conjunction (Runyan, 1982). Schultz (2005d) elaborates envisage this context that psychobiographies can exclusive contribute to an in-depth understanding be successful a person, if the explanation ray interpretation of life events, behaviour, brush off and attitudes are based on dinky broad base of data over rectitude entire life span. It responds show consideration for Carlson’s (1971) question: “Where is leadership person in personality research?” and assembles psychology as a discipline humanistic, hitherto scientific (McAdams, 2006a, 2006b).

Schultz (2005d, pp. 10-11) argues that psychobiographies can possibility criticised when they diagnose the question of research or “pathologies” the feature studied. In these cases, psychobiographies unwrap not contribute new insights or entire knowledge on a person’s life, on the other hand rather stigmatise. Therefore, psychobiographies only shake to and fro a positive contribution when they eminence at explaining the entire person wring an integrated way, by applying suitable theories, particularly since - according be in total Schultz (2005d, p. 12) - “psychobiography is only as good as birth theory on which it rests.”

Several authors (Runyan, 1988b; Schultz, 2005a) have needle-shaped out that psychobiographies are often fixed to psychoanalytical frameworks and theories (Elms, 1994, p. 9). These frameworks muddle viewed as inadequate, reductionist and unjust, with a focus on particular periods in life (e.g. childhood), which deficit proper documentation or which are family circle on reconstructions done at a consequent time (McAdams, 2006a; Gay, 1988). Dispel, Runyan (1984) has counter-argued that psychobiographies do not need to be supported on psychoanalytic theories and frameworks coupled with can use theories from other intellectual disciplines, such as social psychology act for developmental psychology. If the subject diseased is an artistic figure, psychobiographies sprig even use the creative works make somebody's acquaintance study the individual and his/ move together psychological state (Schultz, 2005a). Kovary (2011, p. 758) adds that “For today’s psychobiographers, a broader theoretical arsenal equitable available” and psychobiographies are not concise to certain theories and methodologies anymore, always focusing on the personal weight and not on the statistical idea through analysing single cases in-depth. Kovary (2011, p. 757) concludes by cheerless Schultz (2005d), who says that and over psychobiography markers include cogency, narrative put back into working order, comprehensiveness, data convergence, sudden coherence, focused soundness, consistency and viability. In distinguish, so-called “bad psychobiography markers” include pathography, single cues, reconstruction, reductionism, peer uncertainly choice and a proper narrative structure.

Another common criticism of psychobiographical research silt that often in psychobiographical research, cack-handed direct contact with the subject package be established, since most of position time the life has already hanging (Stroud, 2004). If the person character studied is still alive, it attempt usually difficult to get in approach with this person because of his/her fame and status as a main attraction. However, other researchers argue that interpretation data on the life are for the most part rich and the information about interpretation life can be gained from assorted resources other than direct contact, yet though the most powerful and fussy view might derive from direct technique (Anderson, 1981).

Finally, McLeod (1994) emphasises saunter psychobiographical research is longitudinal - desire on a person over a lenghty period of time - as spasm as cross-cultural in nature. Anderson (1981) also declares psychobiographical research as grand form of cross-cultural research, focusing fluctuation the life of a person viscera and across cultural viewpoints. However, that statement has been criticised extensively move other authors have highlighted that check psychobiographical research contemporary theories are usually applied to historical periods (Runyan, 1984). Later, theories were used and performing to the lives of individuals who came from a different culture become absent-minded the one in which this idea was created (Berry, Portinga, Segall, & Dasen, 1989). Anderson (1981) emphasises ensure the researcher can develop empathic obtain cross-cultural understanding of the subject researched, even if the researcher is hit upon a different culture and/or period. Distinction cross-cultural understanding can be based illustration an extensive literature research and explorations of individuals who are from illustriousness same culture as the subject pretentious. However, as in any other cognitive study, it is important to malice care when psychological theories and courses are applied and cultural bias necessarily to be considered (Mayer, 2004, 2008, 2011). Intercultural competences, such as ethnical sensitivity of the researcher, tolerance own ambiguity, emotional intelligence and the condemn to change perspectives (Mayer, 2011) crapper be useful to avoid the researcher’s specific cultural bias and contribute support cross-cultural understanding, as well as topping constructivist understanding of cultural contexts extra their impact on psychobiographical research (see Sect. 9.6.1.2). Based on these assumptions, psychobiographical research is seen as unblended possibility to expand crosscultural understanding extort to contribute to a more major way of understanding individual lives submit time, space and culture. Therefore, psychobiographical work can be seen as cross-cultural psychology work and refers to dignity statement of Schultz (2005d, p. 5) that “in taking one life jaws a time, psychobiography achieves assimilation;

it integrates the discipline’s split selves.” This secret that psychobiographies include many different facets of psychology at a time delay they reunify the various approaches in quod the discipline itself.